This is an extract from a recent report “Together we have more power: Status, challenges, and the potential for regional renewable energy cooperation in the Hindu Kush Himalaya” published by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.
Primary Energy Supply
Data on total primary energy supply (TPES) from Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) countries show that there is variation in terms of dependency on different energy sources – coal, natural gas, nuclear, hydro, wind and solar, biofuels and waste, and oil – across countries. Afghanistan heavily relies on oil (60.9%) and coal (24%), underscoring its dependency on fossil fuels and the related energy security risks. Bangladesh’s energy mix is dominated by natural gas (52.7%) and oil (26%), reflecting its reliance on natural gas reserves. Bhutan stands out with a focus on renewable energy, primarily depending on hydro (37.4%) and biofuels and waste (25.1%). In contrast, China’s energy supply is heavily coal-based (61%), with significant contributions from oil (17.9%) and natural gas (7.8%), indicating a strong reliance on fossil fuels. India’s energy profile mirrors China’s, with coal (45.9%) and oil (24%) being major sources, supplemented by biofuels and waste (20.7%).
The large share of non-renewable energy sources in TPES in China and India significantly impacts GHG emissions globally. In China and India, the contribution of the energy sector to total national GHG emissions is respectively 88% and 72%. Expanding the share of renewable energy in TPES, particularly in these two countries and in general in all HKH countries, is crucial for reducing GHG emissions. Myanmar’s primary energy sources are biofuels and waste (51.2%) and oil (27.6%), highlighting a mix of traditional biofuels (i.e. wood fuel) and fossil fuels. Nepal is distinct with a predominant use of biofuels and waste (66.7%), showcasing its heavy reliance on biomass energy. Lastly, Pakistan’s energy mix is varied, with substantial contributions from natural gas (24.2%), biofuels and waste (26.8%), and oil (25.5%). This scenario illustrates that each country’s energy profile highlights different strategic priorities and challenges in transitioning to renewable energy sources.
Biofuels and waste have major contributions from traditional renewable energy sources derived from plants and animals (also called biomass). However, it is difficult to consider biomass (e.g., wood fuel, biogas) and other biofuels (e.g., biodiesel) as clean energy sources. Around 61% of the rural population in the HKH countries (as of 2021), a majority of whom live in the mountain areas, are largely dependent on biomass. Interestingly, the share of clean sources (hydro, solar and wind) of renewable energy in TPES in the HKH countries is very small, ranging from 0.3% to 7.1% across HKH countries, except Bhutan. In Bhutan, the share of clean renewable energy in TPES is 37.8%. In China and Nepal, the share of clean renewable energy is 7.1% and 6.8% respectively. In the other five countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and Pakistan), the share of clean renewable energy in TPES is well below 5%. Overall, the share of clean renewable energy is only 6.1%. Increasing the proportion of clean renewable energy in the total energy supply is crucial for promoting sustainable development and reducing GHGs in the HKH region.
Energy Balance and Sectoral Consumption
It is important to examine the energy balances to understand the national production and energy trade dependency of countries. It is also important to examine the consumption of energy by different sectors within countries to identify which sectors could benefit the most from regional cooperation and energy trade. Overall, HKH countries, except Bhutan, are net importers of energy with major imports of non-renewables. Afghanistan is a net importer of energy, primarily importing oil products and electricity. However, the country exports primary coal and peat. Bangladesh relies heavily on imports for a substantial amount of its energy needs, which include coal, crude oil, oil products, natural gas, and electricity. Imports account for around 30% of the country’s total energy supply. Bhutan is a notable net exporter of energy, with electricity being its primary exported commodity. The country’s vast hydropower potential allows it to export electricity to neighbouring countries.
China, being the largest country in the region, has a significant dependence on energy imports, including non-renewable sources such as oil products, coal, crude oil and natural gas. Nevertheless, it functions as a country that exports more electricity than it imports, utilising its extensive infrastructure and capacity for electrical generation. Similarly, India imports a significant amount of non-renewable energy sources and is a net exporter of electricity, due to its substantial infrastructure and renewable energy initiatives. Myanmar is a net exporter of energy with major exports of natural gas. Nepal imports a substantial amount of energy, primarily non-renewables such as coal, oil products, and electricity. Imports of energy are crucial for the country to meet its domestic energy demand. Pakistan is a net importer of energy, with non-renewables making up most imports. To achieve its internal energy requirements, the country heavily relies on imports.
In HKH countries, a sector-wise breakdown of the final energy consumption shows that the household sector is the main consumer of energy, except in China and India. In both China and India, industry is the major consumer of energy, indicating the priorities of these countries for economic growth and development. In addition to household and industry, the transport sector also consumes a significant proportion of energy in countries. Minor proportions of energy are also consumed by commercial and public activities, agriculture and forestry, and other consumers. Expanding energy access in industry and agriculture is particularly crucial for enhancing productivity and economic development. Overall, in all HKH countries, energy consumption continues to rely heavily on non-renewable energy sources. The abundant use of fossil fuels has posed a greater danger to environmental concerns, including high-energy-related emissions. However, there is a huge scope to increase the share of renewable energy in both supply and consumption, which could enhance energy security while reducing environmental impacts.
Current Share of Renewable Energy Sources in Electricity Production
There are notable differences in the proportion of renewable and non-renewable energy resources in electricity generation in the HKH countries. Electricity generation in Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, and Pakistan is predominantly dependent on non-renewable energy sources. In Bangladesh, fossil fuels account for 98% of the total electricity generated, with a substantial reliance on gas (69,190 GWh) and oil (25,810 GWh). In China, most of the power, accounting for 67%, is generated from fossil fuels, primarily coal, which contributes to a total of 5,397,800 GWh. In India, fossil fuels, mostly coal (1,380,100 GWh) and gas (47,040 GWh), contribute to 77% of the country’s electrical generation. In Myanmar, fossil fuels account for 56% of the total energy generation. The primary sources of this electricity are gas, which contributes 8,030 GWh, and coal, which contributes 2,170 GWh. In Pakistan, most electricity production (68%) is derived from non-renewable sources, with gas accounting for 56,450 GWh and oil contributing 18,800 GWh.
Conversely, Afghanistan, Bhutan, and Nepal mostly generate their electricity from renewable sources, with hydropower being the leading source. Afghanistan relies on renewable sources, mostly hydropower, for 84% of its electricity generation, amounting to 620 GWh. Nevertheless, Afghanistan relies heavily on importing most of its electricity from neighbouring countries to fulfil its local energy needs. Bhutan exclusively depends on hydropower as its sole source of electricity generation, producing a total of 9,000 GWh, which accounts for 100% of its energy supply and is derived entirely from renewable sources. Nepal exclusively generates all its electricity, amounting to 9,670 GWh, from renewable sources, with hydropower being the primary source.
China and India, despite their substantial dependence on non-renewable sources, have made remarkable progress in renewable energy. China derives 30% of its electricity from renewable sources, with hydro (1,303,130 GWh), solar (427,720 GWh), and wind (762,700 GWh) making significant contributions. India’s energy generation from renewable sources accounts for 20% of its total output, with significant contributions from hydro (174,920 GWh), solar (95,160 GWh), and wind (70,050 GWh). Myanmar and Pakistan demonstrate moderate levels of renewable energy source utilisation for electricity production, accounting for 49% and 24% respectively. Myanmar heavily depends on hydropower, generating 9,700 GWh of electricity. In contrast, Pakistan has a more varied renewable energy portfolio, which includes hydropower (34,580 GWh) and bioenergy (1,910 GWh). Overall, the HKH countries produce 28% of electricity from renewable sources (solar, wind, hydro and bioenergy).
Potential for Renewable Energy Sources for Electricity Production
The HKH countries have huge potential for the use of renewable sources to produce electricity. Overall, these countries have a viable potential of 882 GW for hydropower production; of which only 49% is harnessed. Similarly, these countries have enormous potential to produce electricity from wind and solar sources. Within these countries, the HKH areas also have a huge potential for the production of electricity from renewable sources, which could help in reducing dependency on fossil fuel-based electricity. The region alone has the potential for over 635 GW of hydropower production, though a very small percentage of this is utilised. Maximising the use of hydropower potential in the HKH areas can support countries to reach net-zero carbon emissions. It can also be an opportunity to expand the share of renewable energy in the energy mix, boost greener economic activities, and open the doors for trade and broader regional cooperation.
The HKH region also has huge potential for the use of solar and wind sources to produce electricity. The region has the potential for nearly 2,200 GW and 750 GW of electricity generation, respectively, from solar and wind sources. The HKH areas of China have the highest potential for electricity production from solar (1,772 GW) and wind (741 GW) sources. The HKH areas of India have the potential for 224 GW from solar energy. The HKH parts of Afghanistan have a solar energy potential of 80 GW and around 6 GW of wind energy potential. Pakistan and Nepal have, respectively, a solar energy potential of 56 GW and 24 GW. Myanmar and Bhutan also have significant potential for solar energy of 12.7 GW and 12 GW, respectively.
Country-level data shows that Afghanistan, Nepal, and Bhutan had developed only 2%, 6% and 10% of their country’s total hydropower potential respectively. Myanmar and Pakistan utilised 8% and 18% of their country’s total hydropower potential. There are supply-side constraints that have prohibited the development in these countries. Likewise, the harnessed potential of solar, wind and bioenergy is also very low. China and India are ahead of other countries in solar and wind energy technologies. Despite this fact, China has harnessed only 23% of solar and 18% of wind energy potential. India has tapped around 10% of solar and 6% of wind energy potential. Other HKH countries are well behind in the utilisation of the potential of these renewable sources.
Population with Access to Electricity
The HKH region has made tremendous progress in improving access to electricity for its people. According to the SDG 7 Tracker (2024), Bhutan and China have nearly reached 100% electrification. Bangladesh and India are similarly close, with 99.4% and 99.2% of their people having access to electricity, respectively. Afghanistan has made significant progress, with 85.3% electrification. Nepal has also made great progress, with 91.3% of the population now having access to electricity. Pakistan has achieved a 95% electricity rate, indicating consistent progress in recent years. Myanmar, on the other hand, remains the farthest behind, with only 73.7% of its population having access to electricity, despite improvements in previous years. The data demonstrates the disparities in access to electricity within the HKH countries, emphasising the necessity for ongoing efforts to attain universal electrification. The region’s overall population is around 3.36 billion, and ensuring full access to electricity for all remains a vital goal for long-term sustainable development.
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